These techniques are employed in outdoor lighting fixtures, such as streetlights and landscape lighting, to minimize harsh shadows, improve visibility, and create a more pleasing aesthetic.

Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

When a beam of light hits on a smooth surface, the majority of it bounces back in a concentrated manner. This phenomenon is known as specular reflection, resulting in direct and luminous light. A mirror is an example of a smooth surface that exhibits specular reflection.

Diffused lightphotography

A light diffuser is a partially transparent material placed between a light source and an object to disperse and scatter the light as it passes through the material. Rather than completely obstructing or reducing the light, the diffuser alters the path of the light, resulting in a spread of diffused light across the subject.

The image sensor realizes the auto focus (AF) feature that continuously captures a target object with high accuracy while being in motion at high speed. It also ...

Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Light diffusion is the scattering and spreading of light in various directions when it encounters an uneven or rough surface or passes through a translucent medium. Light scattering occurs through reflection or transmission processes. When light encounters an uneven surface, like a frosted window or the coating on a light bulb, it undergoes diffuse reflection. This type of reflection leads to the scattering of light in various directions.

The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Focal Lengths When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Diffused lightbulb

Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

202411 — FOV is measured in degrees and tells you how much area a camera can ... In short, a shorter focal length (like 10mm) means a wider view but less ...

The on-camera zoom lens covers focal length 7.85mm to 32mm as marked on the lens: The 35mm equivalent of 7.85mm-32mm is 38mm-155mm, which covers not-so-wide-angle to moderate telephoto. This is a variable aperture zoom lens, which means the maximum aperture changes as the lens is zooming. The lens marking shows that the wide side (i.e., 7.85mm) has maximum aperture F2.6, and the tele side (i.e., 32mm) has maximum aperture F5.1. The effect of zooming-in or -out can be viewed on both the viewfinder and LCD monitor. But, using the LCD monitor is preferable if the subjects are very close to the camera because of the parallax problem. See Autofocus Overview for the details. This lens also has very good quality for macro photography, and can focus down to about 2cm. See Close-Up for the details. In what follows, we shall provide a very general overview of a number of concepts and the meaning of some terms. Focal Lengths When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

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Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The 35mm equivalent of 7.85mm-32mm is 38mm-155mm, which covers not-so-wide-angle to moderate telephoto. This is a variable aperture zoom lens, which means the maximum aperture changes as the lens is zooming. The lens marking shows that the wide side (i.e., 7.85mm) has maximum aperture F2.6, and the tele side (i.e., 32mm) has maximum aperture F5.1. The effect of zooming-in or -out can be viewed on both the viewfinder and LCD monitor. But, using the LCD monitor is preferable if the subjects are very close to the camera because of the parallax problem. See Autofocus Overview for the details. This lens also has very good quality for macro photography, and can focus down to about 2cm. See Close-Up for the details. In what follows, we shall provide a very general overview of a number of concepts and the meaning of some terms. Focal Lengths When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

As light travels through the air, it encounters numerous particles dispersed along its path. Each individual particle present in the air interacts with the light, causing it to change direction and behavior. Consequently, the photons comprising the light scatter and lose some of their energy compared to their undisturbed path. This scattering effect leads to a decrease in the intensity of the light source, as each photon becomes less efficient in conveying information about the subject to the camera. If the air contains fog or haze, this phenomenon becomes even more impactful.

Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

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Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Conversely, rough surfaces exhibit minute irregularities that contribute to their overall roughness. However, these irregularities do not violate the law of reflection. Each light ray still reflects at the same angle as it strikes the object but in a different direction. This process gives rise to scattered light, commonly referred to as diffuse light. The scattering of light is responsible for the diffusion and gentle nature of the light beam.

The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

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202235 — We have hitherto made the assumption that a lens or a curved mirror is able to form a point image of a point object.

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When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Diffused light possesses a gentle quality, lacking the brightness and harshness found in direct light. It emerges as a result of scattering, originating from all possible angles. Consequently, it appears to envelop objects, creating a sense of wrapping around them. Unlike direct light, diffused light is milder and avoids casting harsh shadows.

Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Light diffusion is used in the design of displays, such as LCD screens and LED panels, to enhance viewing angles, improve color uniformity, and minimize the visibility of individual pixels.

Illumina sequencing and array technologies drive advances in life science research, translational and consumer genomics, and molecular diagnostics.

Light diffusers are installed in windows, skylights, and light fixtures in buildings to distribute natural or artificial light evenly, minimize glare, and enhance the overall quality of lighting indoors.

Light diffusion finds applications in various fields. Diffusion materials such as softboxes, diffusers, and reflectors are extensively used in photography and filmmaking to create soft and diffused lighting conditions. This helps to reduce harsh shadows, create a more even illumination, and achieve the desired aesthetic effect.

In medical and therapeutic applications, diffused light is utilized for treatments like phototherapy and light box therapy. This helps to evenly distribute the therapeutic light, ensuring a more effective and comfortable experience for patients.

Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

La visione artificiale è essenziale in una vasta gamma di applicazioni nel mondo reale. Alcune delle più comuni sono illustrate di seguito. Sistemi autonomi. I ...

Diffused lightarchitecture

On the other hand, diffused light photography involves using a diffuser to achieve a broader distribution of light. Images captured with a diffuser exhibit softer shadows and more evenly dispersed illumination across the scene. The diffuser helps create a wider beam angle, resulting in a more gentle and diffused lighting effect.

Numero di Telefono, Itinerario e Contatti - Ottica La Lente in 4/B, Vl. del Lavoro, Jesi. Scopri subito Indicazioni, Contatti ed altre informazioni utili.

Sep 7, 2024 — Il gioco crea un'animazione unica e fluida per la combinazione vincente, roulette puntata ha una propria serie di tornei di poker tenuti nelle ...

Diffused lightceiling

The Rubin Observatory LSST Camera is the largest digital camera ever constructed. At about 5.5 ft (1.65 m) by 9.8 ft (3 m), it's roughly the size of a small ...

Direct light is achieved when there are no materials or obstacles between the light source and the subject. Photons emitted from the source directly reach the subject without being redirected or obstructed. This type of lighting produces harsh illumination, sharper shadows, and higher contrast in the resulting image.

General Information The on-camera zoom lens covers focal length 7.85mm to 32mm as marked on the lens: The 35mm equivalent of 7.85mm-32mm is 38mm-155mm, which covers not-so-wide-angle to moderate telephoto. This is a variable aperture zoom lens, which means the maximum aperture changes as the lens is zooming. The lens marking shows that the wide side (i.e., 7.85mm) has maximum aperture F2.6, and the tele side (i.e., 32mm) has maximum aperture F5.1. The effect of zooming-in or -out can be viewed on both the viewfinder and LCD monitor. But, using the LCD monitor is preferable if the subjects are very close to the camera because of the parallax problem. See Autofocus Overview for the details. This lens also has very good quality for macro photography, and can focus down to about 2cm. See Close-Up for the details. In what follows, we shall provide a very general overview of a number of concepts and the meaning of some terms. Focal Lengths When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

LED Machine Light 22 in (560mm) 28 watt 26600-510 ... $308.25 ... SKU: 26600-510.

Similar behavior occurs when a light beam passes through any type of light diffusion fabric. The more obstructed the view through the diffusion material, the greater impact it has on the light's attempt to pass through it. In such cases, the diffusion material significantly influences the behavior and characteristics of the transmitted light.

You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

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There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

Different diffusion techniques are employed in architectural lighting design to create visually pleasing and comfortable environments. Diffusing light sources can help eliminate glare, provide more uniform illumination, and reduce harsh contrasts.

Diffusion films or coatings are used in product design and packaging to create a softer appearance and reduce glare on surfaces such as electronic displays, indicator lights, and packaging materials.

What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus

The 35mm equivalent of 7.85mm-32mm is 38mm-155mm, which covers not-so-wide-angle to moderate telephoto. This is a variable aperture zoom lens, which means the maximum aperture changes as the lens is zooming. The lens marking shows that the wide side (i.e., 7.85mm) has maximum aperture F2.6, and the tele side (i.e., 32mm) has maximum aperture F5.1. The effect of zooming-in or -out can be viewed on both the viewfinder and LCD monitor. But, using the LCD monitor is preferable if the subjects are very close to the camera because of the parallax problem. See Autofocus Overview for the details. This lens also has very good quality for macro photography, and can focus down to about 2cm. See Close-Up for the details. In what follows, we shall provide a very general overview of a number of concepts and the meaning of some terms. Focal Lengths When you change focal length, you will notice two important effects: angle of view and magnification. When the focal length becomes smaller (resp., larger), the coverage of the scene is wider (resp., narrower). It would be very helpful if you know the correspondence between the 35mm focal length and the focal length of 4500's on-camera lens. Assuming that the focal length of the 4500 changes linearly, which may not exactly be the case but close enough, the following gives an approximation of this conversion: For example, 12mm on a 4500 is equivalent to 58mm on a 35mm camera. On the other hand, 105mm on a 35mm camera is equivalent to 22.7mm on a 995. The following images show the coverage of commonly used focal lengths. They are 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm (35mm equivalent). The corresponding 4500 focal lengths of 38mm, 50mm, 85mm, 100mm and 150mm are, approximately, 7.85mm, 10.3mm, 17.6mm, 20.6mm and 31mm, respectively. 38mm 50mm 85mm 100mm 150mm Click on the image to see a larger one Focal length 50mm is the standard or normal focal length, because a 50mm lens (for 35mm cameras) covers approximately what human eyes can see. A smaller focal length than 50mm is called wide angle since its coverage is wider than that of a normal lens. See the images of 38mm and 50mm above. Focal lengths larger than 50mm are telephotos, because they can bring distant subjects closer like a telescope does. The on-camera lens provides the so-called moderate telephoto, because its maximum focal length is 155mm. Lens Attachments/Accessories The on-camera lens provides the most commonly used focal range (i.e., 38mm - 155mm). The wide end is usually used for scenic shots and the tele end is good for portraiture. If the desired focal length is not in this range (i.e., wider than 38mm to cover a wider area or longer than 155mm to bring distant subjects closer), you have to use lens converters. Nikon manufactures a fisheye converter (FC-E8), two wide angle converters that can bring the focal length down to 24mm (WC-E24 and WC-E63), a 2X tele converter that extends the focal length to 304mm (TC-E2), and a 3X tele converter that extends the focal length to 456mm (TC-E3ED). Click here for an overview of these lens converters. You might also consider to add a protection filter on the lens. The filter thread size is 28mm. The two most commonly used filters are UV filter and Polarizing filter (or polarizer for short). Click here for an overview of using filters. Lens Flare and Ghost When you point the lens to the sun or a very strong light source, lens flare and/or ghost may occur in your image. The left image below shows such an effect. The area near the bright spot (i.e., the sun) is washed out. In fact, flare occurs even though the strong light source is not in the image. Flare occurs due to light bouncing off the glass surfaces of the lens (i.e., internal reflection) rather than transmitting through. Because of this internal reflection, image contrast and tonality are reduced. Lens flare and ghost Click on the picture to see a full size one The right image above illustrates another effect, ghost, a string of color dots appearing in the image. The washed-out effect (i.e., flare) is still there near the upper-left corner, but is not as strong as the one shown in the left image above. However, there is a string of dots, usually in green, purple or violet, appears in the image. These dots have the shape of the aperture of the lens and are not part of the actual scene. Therefore, they are called ghosts! Most low cost zoom and wide angle lenses suffer this problem. The image below shows flare, ghost and severe washed-out. Sun light comes in from the upper-left corner, and, as a result, you can see the shape of the aperture there. The bottom washed-out part is caused by water reflection. With a better lens, surfaces of glasses are multicoated with special anti-reflection chemicals to prevent flare and ghost. However, even though with a multicoated lens like the on-camera one, flare and ghost cannot be eliminated completely. See Coated or Non-Coated for more details about lens coating. Lens flare, ghost and severe washed-out Click on the picture to see a full size one To overcome this problem, please do not point the lens directly toward or near a strong light source. If this cannot be avoided because it is your favorite scene, try to hold a piece of paper or use your hand or a lens hood to block the incoming light. It usually partially solves this problem. Also note that the right image above has vignetting (i.e., shadows in the corners). This is because a polarizer is stacked on a UV filter and then zoomed out. To avoid this vignetting problem, do not stack filters on top of each other. Distortions There are two types of distortions: barrel and pincushion. Both types are slightly visible with on-camera zoom lens. Barrel distortion means straight lines in real world bow outward in images. The closer to the image edges, the worse the barrel distortion. Barrel distortion usually occurs in the wide angle side. On the other hand, pincushion distortion means straight lines in real world bow inward in images. Similar to barrel distortion, the closer to the image edge, the worse the pincushion distortion. Pincushion distortion usually occurs in the tele side. Barrel distortion Pincushion distortion Click on the picture to see a larger one The left image above shows an example of barrel distortion. The edge of the building and the pole bow outward. The right image above shows an example of pincushion distortion. A yellow line connecting the two endpoints of the roof is drawn. Comparing this line and the edge of the roof, you should see pincushion distortion. Chromatic Aberration Since the refractive index of all transparent materials varies with wavelength. It means a lens, in general, is not able to focus all three primary colors (i.e., red, green and blue) at the same point without applying some kind of optical correction. A lens in which two primary colors are corrected and united so that they focus at a common image point is said to be achromatic, while if all three primary colors are corrected and united is said to be apochromatic. A lens in which none of the primary colors are brought to the same image point suffers chromatic aberration. Therefore, the image produced by such a lens frequently contains color fringes that are not part of the actual scene. In digital cameras, the image capturing devices (e.g., CCDs) also contribute come degree of aberration. Because the photosites of an image capturing device are densely packed, it is possible that the color captured by one photosite may "propagate" to its neighbors. In the worst case, an over-charged photosite (i.e., over-exposed) may have its charge ``leaking'' to its neighboring photosites. This an effect, which is similar to chromatic aberration, is usually referred to as blooming. The areas marked by yellow rectangles in the following image show the impact of chromatic aberration. Click on the image to see a larger one The lower-left corner and far right edge of the above image are cropped and shown in the following images. Click on the image to see the portions in original resolution. In the left image below, there is a vertical purple fringe between the frame and garage door, and a horizontal orange fringe between the garage door and ground. In the right image blow, purple fringe also occurs along the window frame. These color fringes are the results of chromatic aberration and can reduce the quality of images. In general, boundaries between two high contrast areas are the places where color fringes may occur. Click on the image to see a larger one What Is Ahead? Nikon Coolpix 995 supports two types of zooms, Optical Zoom and Digital Zoom. The latter provides a way to blow up the center part of a captured image using software algorithms, thereby offering a digital equivalent of telephoto lens with lower image quality. Also refer to Lens Converter Overview for more information. Technical Data The following lens technical information are taken from Nikon's manual. Item Technical Data Number of lenses 10 elements in 8 groups Zoom Ratio x4 Focal length 7.85mm - 24mm or 38mm - 155mm (35mm equivalent) Maximum Aperture F2.6 (wide) to F5.1 (tele) Coating Nikon Super Integrated Coating Minimum range 30cm/13 in to infinity @ widest position Minimum range, macro 2cm/0.84 in to infinity, Manual focus